What is Biotechnology

The UN Convention on Biological Diversity states, "Biotechnology is any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use". The OECD (the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development) defines biotechnology as "...the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents". Thus, "Biotechnology" basically means using biology as the basis for a technology that is applied to research and product development in areas such as agriculture, food science, and medicine.

The Academic Standards for Science and Technology defines Biotechnology as the ways that humans apply biological concepts to produce products and provide services. This is very true if we consider a section of biotechnology in which the directed manipulation of organisms is used for the product of organic products such as beer, milk products, food etc.

Biotechnology had already been performed long before the term itself was coined, though on a very basic level. For example, man had already learnt the method of fermenting fruit juices to concoct alcoholic beverages during the period around 6000 BC. However, it was considered more of an art then. Biotechnology became a real science only about two decades ago when genes were found to contain information that would enable the synthesis of specific proteins. This was in the 1970s, when new advances in the field of molecular biology enabled scientists to easily transfer DNA - the chemical building blocks that specify the characteristics of living organisms - between more distantly related organisms.

Then in the mid-eighties and early-nineties, it was confirmed that the transformation or modification of the genetic structure of plants and animals was very possible. The introduction of "Transgenic" animals and plants also led to more resistance to disease and increased the rate of productivity etc. Modern biotechnology is also now more often than not associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like insulin or antibiotics. New innovative biotechnology application such as plant-made pharmaceuticals has also now been developed.

Sub-fields in Biotechnology:

Red Biotechnology is the use of genetically altered microorganisms for the production of substances like insulin, antibiotics, vitamins, vaccines and proteins for medical use, and is thus related to medical processes. Genomic manipulation is also an example of Red Biotechnology.

Biomanufacturing or White Biotechnology is emerging field within modern biotechnology which involves the designing of organisms such as moulds, yeasts or bacteria, and enzymes to produce certain useful chemicals, and is related to the industrial sector. It is also known as Grey Biotechnology.

Green Biotechnology or agricultural Biotechnology, like the name suggests, is the area of biotechnology involving applications to agriculture. This basically involves the genetic manipulation of plants and animals in order to create more productive, environmentally friendly, disease resistant species. An example of traditional agricultural biotechnology is the development of disease-resistant wheat varieties by cross-breeding different wheat types until the desired disease resistance variety is achieved.

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Biotechnology Timeline: Important Events And Discoveries In Biotechnology

1977:

The Age of biotechnology arrives with "somatostatin" - a human growth hormone-releasing inhibitory factor, the first human protein manufactured in bacteria by Genentech, Inc. A synthetic, recombinant gene was used to clone a protein for the first time.

1978:

Genentech, Inc. and The City of Hope National Medical Center announce the successful laboratory production of human insulin using recombinant DNA technology. Hutchinson and Edgell show it is possible to introduce specific mutations at specific sites in a DNA molecule.

1979:

Sir Walter Bodmer suggests a way of using DNA technology to find gene markers to show up specific genetic diseases and their carriers. John Baxter reports cloning the gene for human growth hormone.

1980:

The prokaryote model, E. coli, is used to produce insulin and other medicine, in human form. Researchers successfully introduce a human gene - one that codes for the protein interferon- into a bacterium. The U.S. patent for gene cloning is awarded to Cohen and Boyer.

1981:

Scientists at Ohio University produce the first transgenic animals by transferring genes from other animals into mice. The first gene-synthesizing machines are developed. Chinese scientists successfully clone a golden carp fish.

1982:

Genentech, Inc. receives approval from the Food and Drug Administration to market genetically engineered human insulin. Applied Biosystems, Inc. introduces the first commercial gas phase protein sequencer.

1983:

The polymerase chain reaction is invented by Kary B Mullis. The first artificial chromosome is synthesized, and the first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases are found.

1984:

Chiron Corp. announces the first cloning and sequencing of the entire human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) genome. Alec Jeffreys introduces technique for DNA fingerprinting to identify individuals. The first genetically engineered vaccine is developed.

1985:

Cetus Corporation's develops GeneAmp polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology, which could generate billions of copies of a targeted gene sequence in only hours. Scientists find a gene marker for cystic fibrosis on chromosome number 7.

1986:

The first genetically engineered human vaccine - Chiron's Recombivax HB - is approved for the prevention of hepatitis B. A regiment of scientists and technicians at Caltech and Applied Biosystems, Inc. invented the automated DNA fluorescence sequencer.

1987:

The first outdoor tests on a genetically engineered bacterium are allowed. It inhibits frost formation on plants. Genentech's tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), sold as Activase, is approved as a treatment for heart attacks.

1988:

Harvard molecular geneticists Philip Leder and Timothy Stewart awarded the first patent for a genetically altered animal, a mouse that is highly susceptible to breast cancer

1989:

UC Davis scientists develop a recombinant vaccine against the deadly rinderpest virus. The human genome project is set up, a collaboration between scientists from countries around the world to work out the whole of the human genetic code.

1990:

The first gene therapy takes place, on a four-year-old girl with an immune-system disorder called ADA deficiency. The human genome project is formally launched.

1991:

Mary-Claire King, of the University of California, Berkeley, finds evidence that a gene on chromosome 17 causes the inherited form of breast cancer and also increases the risk of ovarian cancer. Tracey the first transgenic sheep is born.

1992:

The first liver xenotransplant from one type of animal to another is carried out successfully. Chiron's Proleukin is approved for the treatment of renal cell cancer.

1993:

The FDA declares that genetically engineered foods are "not inherently dangerous" and do not require special regulation. Chiron's Betaseron is approved as the first treatment for multiple sclerosis in 20 years.

1994:

The first genetically engineered food product, the Flavr Savr tomato, gained FDA approval. The first breast cancer gene is discovered. Genentech's Nutropin is approved for the treatment of growth hormone deficiency.

1995:

Researchers at Duke University Medical Center transplanted hearts from genetically altered pigs into baboons, proving that cross-species operations are possible. The bacterium Haemophilus influenzae is the first living organism in the world to have its entire genome sequenced.

1996:

Biogen's Avonex is approved for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. The discovery of a gene associated with Parkinson's disease provides an important new avenue of research into the cause and potential treatment of the debilitating neurological ailment.

1997:

Researchers at Scotland's Roslin Institute report that they have cloned a sheep--named Dolly--from the cell of an adult ewe. The FDA approves Rituxan, the first antibody-based therapy for cancer.

1998:

The first complete animal genome the C.elegans worm is sequenced. James Thomson at Wisconsin and John Gearhart in Baltimore each develop a technique for culturing embryonic stem cells.

1999:

A new medical diagnostic test will for the first time allow quick identification of BSE/CJD a rare but devastating form of neurologic disease transmitted from cattle to humans.

2000:

"Golden Rice," modified to make vitamin A. Cloned pigs are born for the first time in work done by Alan Coleman and his team at PPL, the Edinburgh-based company responsible for Dolly the sheep.

2001:

The sequence of the human genome is published in Science and Nature, making it possible for researchers all over the world to begin developing genetically based treatments for disease.

2002:

Researchers sequence the DNA of rice, and is the first crop to have its genome decoded.

2003:

The sequencing of the human genome is completed.

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Insulin Production From the Milk of Argentine Cow Clones

1. INTRODUCTION:

1.1 Insulin

Insulin is a peptide hormone made of 51 amino acids composing two chains A and B. The A chain has 21 amino acids and the B chain has 30 amino acids. The two chains are linked by intra and inter disulphide linkages. The release of this hormone is mainly initiated by the blood glucose levels.

1.2 Diabetes Mellitus

The inability of the 2-cells of Langerhans to secrete adequate or inability to secrete insulin following the glucose load is said to be Diabetes mellitus. The complications of diabetes are Cataract formation, Acute to Chronic renal failure, Cardiac problems, unhealed wounds, Mycoses etc.

Due to the above said complications, it has impacts on the living standards of people. The worldwide diabetic population is about 200 million. The WHO data reveal that this will become doubled by 2025 ( based on 2002 data ). This implies the importance of this hormone.

1.3 History of Insulin

Baunting and Best developed the use of insulin therapy in 1921. Insulin was the first protein to be sequenced by Frederick Sanger in 1950s. For about 60 years diabetics were dependent on natural sources of insulin with attendant problems of supply and quality. In the late 1970s and early 1980s recombinant DNA technology enabled scientists to synthesis insulin in bacteria.

The best natural source of insulin is human insulin which can be isolated in crystalline form from the cadaver of human. It costs approximately about 5000$ per vial, which is practically impossible. As diabetes affects irrational of sex, race, economic status which led scientists to think of alternate techniques that will bring down the production cost. Using plasmid vectors, scientists produce insulin from E.coli by rDNA technology. It has its own advantages and disadvantages. It has low generation time but the chances for contamination are high.

2. TRANSGENIC ANIMALS

Generation of transgenic animals is complex in terms of both technical difficulty and ethical problems.

2.1 Utilisation of Transgenic Animals to Produce Proteins

The use of transgenic animals to produce the proteins of human interest was already in practice. One of such example is production of tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA) in the milk of goats. Here the mammary control DNA and coding DNA for tissue plasminogen activator are utilized to produce rDNA. The hybrid gene is inoculated in to fertilized egg ( isolated from a goat ) by microinjection. The microinjected fertilized egg is transferred to a foster mother. Then the hybrid gene carriers were mate to produce the transgenic female homozygous for the transgene. This transgenic technology enables goats to secrete tPA in milk. A similar technique with little modifications is used to make cows secrete insulin in milk. 2.2 Procedure

Here the animal selected is Jersey heifer which is known for its abundant milk production. The mammary control DNA of Jersey heifer fetus is isolated. In animals and Plants, the DNA to Protein ratio is less. Hence the nuclei isolated first. This increases the ratio of DNA to Protein and avoids contamination of chromosomal DNA by DNA from cytoplasmic organelles. The nuclei opened , the RNA and Protein are enzymatically digested, then the DNA is precipitated.

o The coding DNA for human insulin is isolated in the same manner.

o It is then treated with type II Restriction Endonucleases to cut at specific sites.

o The required DNA sequences are joined together using DNA ligase enzymes.

o The hybrid gene is introduced in to the cell by microinjection. Once the gene enters the cell should enter the nucleus.

o The Jersey heifer's eggs are taken and the nucleus is removed using a micropipette.

o The genetically modified nuclei are fused with enucleated eggs using cloning techniques.

o The electrical stimulus cause cell dividing and an early embryo is developed.

o The embryo cells are separated and are implanted in surrogate mother cows.

o It gives rise to 4 genetically modified calves in 385 ± 5 days.

o These calves will reach maturity in 18 - 24 months at which they are capable of producing milk.

o Once they start producing milk, the insulin can be obtained by purification and refining of milk using protein purification techniques like HPLC.

- Scientists isolated the specific cell types from Jersey heifer's fetus from a slaughter house

- The rDNA is introduced in to the cell which reaches the nucleus

- The genetically modified nuclei is fused with enucleated cattle eggs using cloning techniques

- The electrical impulse starts cell division

- The cells are individualized and can be implanted into 4 surrogate mother cows

- The mother cow will give birth to genetically modified calves in 385 ± 5 days

- The genetically modified calves will reach adulthood in 18 - 24 months

- Once they start milk production, the insulin can be obtained by purification and refining of milk.

3. Conclusion

o This technique will definitely can reduce the production cost by atleast 30%.

o The complications can be overcome by further working with this.

o This will definitely cause a revolution in the utilization of transgenic animals for protein production if the usual difficulties are solved.

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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BIOTECHNOLOGY Mohan. P. Arora ( 2004) Himalaya Publishing House

GENETIC ENGINEERING Desmond S. T. Nicholl, Paisley ( 2002 ) Cambridge University Press

MOLECULAR BIOTECHNOLOGY- Principles and Applications of Recombinant DNA Bernard R. Glick and Jack J. Pasternak ( 2002 )

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Biotechnology: Transgenic V Conventional Cotton

See the way transgenic cotton varieties work to repel insects, and why they are so popular due to the massive reduction in required chemicals for insect cont...

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Plasmids | Genetics | Biology

To purchase this program please visit www.greatpacificmedia.com Segment from the program Biotechnology: Engineering Genomes. DVD Description Our Biotechnology DVD first looks at major research areas in biotechnology such as the Human Genome Project and the various forms of recombinant DNA technology that produce transgenic plants and animals. The program then goes on to look at the tools used by biotechnologists such as restriction enzymes, plasmids, vector and vector less insertion of genes into genomes, and the production of genes via polymerase chain reactions. The program then concludes by looking at the future of biotechnology and some of the environmental, economic, and ethical issues raised by biotech.

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